Dynamic Dispatch

"Dynamic Dispatch" is a fancy term for a call to an overloaded procedure (one with multiple implementations whose signatures differ only in the types of args/return value) being routed (a.k.a. "dispatched") to the appropriate implementation based on type information solely available at runtime.

TLDR;

The short version of this section is that Claro supports the following:

Fig 1:

requires(Stringify<T>)
consumer prettyPrintList<T>(l: [T]) {
  for (e in l) {
    print(Stringify::displayStr(e));
  }
}

var elems: [oneof<Foo, Bar, Buzz>] = [Foo(1234), Bar("some string"), Buzz("another")];
prettyPrintList(elems);

contract Stringify<T> {
  function displayStr(t: T) -> string;
}

newtype Foo : int
implement Stringify<Foo> {
  function displayStr(t: Foo) -> string {
    var boundingLine = strings::repeated("*", len("{unwrap(t)}") + len("* Foo() *"));
    return "{boundingLine}\n* {t} *\n{boundingLine}";
  }
}

newtype Bar : string
implement Stringify<Bar> {
  function displayStr(t: Bar) -> string {
    var boundingLine = strings::repeated("-", len(unwrap(t)) + len("| Bar() |"));
    return "{boundingLine}\n| {t} |\n{boundingLine}";
  }
}

newtype Buzz : string
implement Stringify<Buzz> {
  function displayStr(t: Buzz) -> string {
    var boundingLine = strings::repeated("#", len(unwrap(t)) + len("# Buzz() #"));
    return "{boundingLine}\n# {t} #\n{boundingLine}";
  }
}

Output:

[0.001s][warning][perf,memops] Cannot use file /tmp/hsperfdata_runner/6 because it is locked by another process (errno = 11)
*************
* Foo(1234) *
*************
--------------------
| Bar(some string) |
--------------------
#################
# Buzz(another) #
#################

Feel free to ponder how this works. But keep reading if it's not immediately obvious what's going on here.

By Comparison to Object-Oriented Programming

Claro is truly a procedural language, and so is philosophically opposed to the personification of data that is a fundamental property of "Object-Oriented" programming (OOP) languages like Java/Python/C++/etc. So, you won't find anything resembling "Objects" or "Classes" in Claro. Additionally, Claro is philosophically opposed to the complexity of inheritance, so again Claro's type system does not support it.

However, though Claro takes issue with the path OOP takes to achieve it, the paradigm provides some obviously useful abstractions that help programmers write very expressive code. Of particular interest in this section is the ability to write code that treats values of distinct types interchangeably for the sake of dispatching to procedures that are known to be implemented over each of the distinct types in question.

In a language like Java, you'll accomplish this either by using interfaces, or by creating subtype relationships between types using inheritance.

Using an Interface "Type" as a Procedure Arg (in an OOP language)

For example, the below Java code defines an interface with a single "method" that three classes implement.

Fig 2:

/*** JAVA ***/
import java.util.List;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.lang.StringBuilder;

interface Stringify {
  String displayStr();
}

class Foo implements Stringify {
  // ...
  private final int wrapped;
  public Foo(int wrapped) {
    this.wrapped = wrapped;
  }

  @Override
  public String displayStr() {
    // ...
    String boundingLine = Util.repeated('*', String.valueOf(this.wrapped).length() + "* Foo() *".length());
    return String.format("%s\n* Foo(%s) *\n%s", boundingLine, this.wrapped, boundingLine);
  }
}

class Bar implements Stringify {
  // ...
  private final String wrapped;
  public Bar(String wrapped) {
    this.wrapped = wrapped;
  }

  @Override
  public String displayStr() {
    // ...
    String boundingLine = Util.repeated('-', this.wrapped.length() + "| Bar() |".length());
    return String.format("%s\n| Foo(%s) |\n%s", boundingLine, this.wrapped, boundingLine);
  }
}

class Buzz implements Stringify {
  // ...
  private final String wrapped;
  public Buzz(String wrapped) {
    this.wrapped = wrapped;
  }

  @Override
  public String displayStr() {
    // ...
    String boundingLine = Util.repeated('#', this.wrapped.length() + "# Buzz() #".length());
    return String.format("%s\n# Buzz(%s) #\n%s", boundingLine, this.wrapped, boundingLine);
  }
}

class Util {
  public static String repeated(char c, int n) {
    StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder();
    for (; n > 0; n--) {
      sb.append(c);
    }
    return sb.toString();
  }
}

And so a Java programmer can write a method that accepts an argument of type Stringify... but in Java parlance any type that implements the Stringify interface can be considered a subtype of Stringify and passed in its place:

Fig 3:

/*** JAVA ***/
public class Demo {
  public static void main(String... args) {
    // Foo, Bar, and Buzz are all "subtypes" of Stringify.
    prettyPrint(new Foo(1234));
    prettyPrint(new Bar("some string"));
    prettyPrint(new Buzz("another"));
  }

  static void prettyPrint(Stringify x) {
    System.out.println(x.displayStr());
  }
}

This is a very convenient abstraction. However, in Java this single method implementation must handle multiple possible concrete subtypes of Stringify (in this case Foo, Bar, and Buzz). Java addresses this by dispatching to the correct implementation of the displayStr() method at runtime, by dynamically checking the actual concrete type of the object currently being handled. This is already an example of Dynamic Dispatch. In Java, Dynamic Dispatch is the norm.

Requiring a Contract to Be Implemented Over Generic Type Params (In Claro)

But subtyping is by no means essential for this to be possible. By now you've already seen that Contracts provide a mechanism to express the same thing without resorting to creating any subtyping relationships between types.

Fig 4:

#### CLARO ####
prettyPrint(Foo(1234));
prettyPrint(Bar("some string"));
prettyPrint(Buzz("another"));

requires(Stringify<T>)
consumer prettyPrint<T>(t: T) {
  print(Stringify::displayStr(t));
}

contract Stringify<T> {
  function displayStr(t: T) -> string;
}

newtype Foo : int
implement Stringify<Foo> {
  function displayStr(t: Foo) -> string {
    var boundingLine = strings::repeated("*", len("{unwrap(t)}") + len("* Foo() *"));
    return "{boundingLine}\n* {t} *\n{boundingLine}";
  }
}

newtype Bar : string
implement Stringify<Bar> {
  function displayStr(t: Bar) -> string {
    var boundingLine = strings::repeated("-", len(unwrap(t)) + len("| Bar() |"));
    return "{boundingLine}\n| {t} |\n{boundingLine}";
  }
}

newtype Buzz : string
implement Stringify<Buzz> {
  function displayStr(t: Buzz) -> string {
    var boundingLine = strings::repeated("#", len(unwrap(t)) + len("# Buzz() #"));
    return "{boundingLine}\n# {t} #\n{boundingLine}";
  }
}

Output:

*************
* Foo(1234) *
*************
--------------------
| Bar(some string) |
--------------------
#################
# Buzz(another) #
#################

And additionally, as Claro's generic procedures are "monomorphized", there is actually no Dynamic Dispatch going on in the above example. And when you stop and think about it, why would there be? As a human looking at the three calls to prettyPrint(...), there's zero uncertainty of the types in question. Unlike in the Java case, the Claro compiler actually takes advantage of this type information as well to generate code that statically dispatches to the correct implementations without requiring any runtime type checks.

A (Not So) Brief Aside on the Limitations of Subtyping

You may be thinking that Java's use of subtyping makes the language simpler because it allows you to avoid the use of Generics, but this is debatable at best. Consider a very slightly modified version of the above prettyPrint() function that instead takes two arguments:

Fig 5:

/*** JAVA ***/
public class Demo {
  public static void main(String... args) {
    // Java allows **both** of these calls - whether you want this or not.
    prettyPrintPair(new Foo(1234), new Foo(56678));
    prettyPrintPair(new Foo(1234), new Bar("some string"));
  }

  static void prettyPrintPair(Stringify x, Stringify y) {
    System.out.println("First:" + x.displayStr());
    System.out.println("Second:" + x.displayStr());
  }
}

As it's currently defined, there's nothing requiring the two arguments to actually have the same type. In this trivial example, that may be fine, but if I were to actually want to ensure that two arguments both implement an interface and they both actually have the same type, then I'm out of luck - there's no way to statically encode this constraint in Java!

In Claro, you would simply write:

Fig 6:

#### CLARO ####
requires(Stringify<T>)
consumer prettyPrintPair<T>(x: T, y: T) {
  print("First:\n{Stringify::displayStr(x)}");
  print("Second:\n{Stringify::displayStr(y)}");
}

And it will be a compilation error to pass arguments of different types:

Fig 7:

#### CLARO ####
prettyPrintPair(Foo(1234), Bar("some string"));

Compilation Errors:

dynamic_dispatch_EX7_example.claro:2: Invalid type:
	Found:
		Bar
	Expected:
		Foo
prettyPrintPair(Foo(1234), Bar("some string"));
                           ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
1 Error

But yet it will still be completely valid to pass arguments of the same type just like we wanted:

Fig 8:

#### CLARO ####
prettyPrintPair(Foo(1234), Foo(5678));
print("");
prettyPrintPair(Bar("some string"), Bar("another"));

Output:

First:
*************
* Foo(1234) *
*************
Second:
*************
* Foo(5678) *
*************

First:
--------------------
| Bar(some string) |
--------------------
Second:
----------------
| Bar(another) |
----------------

And for the sake of completeness, Claro's generics also allow you to explicitly express that you would like to allow both arguments to potentially have different types:

Fig 9:

requires(Stringify<T>, Stringify<V>)
consumer prettyPrintPair<T, V>(x: T, y: V) {
  print("First:\n{Stringify::displayStr(x)}");
  print("Second:\n{Stringify::displayStr(y)}");
}

prettyPrintPair(Foo(1234), Bar("some string"));

*For the sake of transparency, as Claro's a WIP, there's actually currently an open compiler regression that broke this functionality at the moment. TODO(steving) Fix this.

Values Of Unknown Type

So far we've seen that Claro programs do not need to resort to Dynamic Dispatch in situations where the types are actually statically guaranteed to be fixed. However, it's not that difficult to conceive of a situation where a specific type cannot be known until runtime.

For example, consider a simple game where different units are dynamically created throughout the course of gameplay. It would be very convenient for the game to be able to implement drawing arbitrary units without being forced to resort to painstakingly hand-write rendering logic for each unit explicitly. In fact, the below video demonstrates a simple Asteroids game written in Claro that accomplishes exactly that:

The game's implementation contains a function with the following signature that fully handles the game's rendering logic (see the game's full implementation here):

Fig 10:

contract Unit<T> {
  consumer move(t: T);
  function hasSpeedBoost(t: T) -> boolean;
}

contract Render<T> {
  function render(t: T) -> char;
  function getLoc(t: T) -> Location;
}

requires(Unit<T>, Render<T>)
function gameTick<T>(gameUnits: mut [T], gameBoard: [mut [char]], spaceship: Spaceship, onlyUnitsWSpeedBoost: boolean)
    -> tuple<GameOverStatus, ExplosionCount> {
  # The full implementation is too long for these docs. For the full implementation, see:
  # See https://github.com/JasonSteving99/claro-lang/blob/d6177ff8719e894f709c42811bd0b7f0a3d6c4d9/examples/claro_programs/asteroids.claro#L121-L123
  # ...
  # Update unit locations.
  for (unit in gameUnits) {
    # ...
    Unit::move(unit);
  }
  # ...
  # Populate gameBoard.
  for (unit in gameUnits) {
    # ...
    gameBoard[loc.r][loc.c] = Render::render(unit);
  }
  # ...
}

Looking more closely, the function accepts an argument gameUnits: mut [T] that contains all of the units, including the asteroids, the player's ship, and any missiles that the player fired. This function is able to actually handle all of these unit types without the programmer needing to hardcode any specific details about them explicitly because of the requires(Unit<T>, Render<T>) constraint on the function that ensures that whatever is inside the gameUnits list, all elements will certainly implement the specified contracts. As a result, the function is able to treat all elements within the gameUnits list interchangeably, even though it has no knowledge whatsoever of what types are actually represented within.

To make things even more interesting, the call (see full source ) to the gameTick() function, passes a gameUnits list defined to contain various different unit types:

Fig 11:

var gameUnits: mut [oneof<Asteroid, Missile, Spaceship>];
# ...
var gameTickRes = gameTick(gameUnits, ...);

This goes to demonstrate that Claro is smart enough to actually understand that the type oneof<Asteroid, Missile, Spaceship> satisfies the requires(Unit<T>, Render<T>) constraint, because each variant implements the required contract (if any didn't, the call would be rejected with a compilation error).

This is Dynamic Dispatch! Because the call was made over types that can't be known until runtime, Claro generates code that will perform the necessary type checks to dispatch to the appropriate procedures at runtime.

Dynamic Dispatch is Rare

If you've made it this far, then congrats! You should have a deep understanding of Dynamic Dispatch in Claro!

The last thing to mention is that Dynamic Dispatch is very intentionally something that you have to explicitly opt into in Claro. It is slower and more complicated than the typical Static Dispatch, and Claro has been carefully designed to make Dynamic Dispatch a rare occurrence as it's actually only necessary in very specific, limited situations. Your takeaway from this section should be that while it is very simple to achieve Dynamic Dispatch in Claro, it is actually not a very common situation that you are very likely to run into on a regular basis. But when it does, Claro makes your life easy.